L'austerity non funziona, e lo sapevamo già. Ma ora, come scritto qualche giorno fa, sappiamo che anche le (debolissime) fondamenta teoriche dei tagli erano, in realtà, un gigantesco falso - non si sa quanto voluto. Tutti i lavori che cercavano di dare una spiegazione convincente sul perchè in tempi di crisi si sarebbe dovuto tagliare sono viziati da errori, omissioni, selezione ad hoc dei dati. Una pagina quasi oscena per gli economisti. In fondo sarebbe bastato studiare un po' di storia economica e vedere come si era evoluta la crisi del '29. O forse solo leggere Keynes. E nessuno si sarebbe bevuto la fanfaluca dei tagli che stimolano la crescita. Speriamo che ora se ne accorgano anche i governi!
Nei due articoli che proponiamo di sotto, Matthew Oà Brien di The Atlantic guarda alle possibile conseguenze della scoperta dell'imbroglio dell'austerity mentre Martin Wolf fornisce una prospettiva storica e spiega come non è sempre il debito a rallentare la crescita, quanto piuttosto la crescita lenta a provocare alti livelli di debito.
Who Is Defending Austerity Now?
di Matthew O'Brien
da The Atlantic
Austerians have had their worst week since the last time GDP numbers came out for a country that's tried austerity.
But
this time is, well, different. It's not "just" that southern Europe is
stuck in a depression and Britain is stuck in a no-growth trap. It's
that the very intellectual foundations of austerity are unraveling. In
other words, economists are finding out that austerity doesn't work in
practice or in theory.
What a difference an Excel coding error makes.
Austerity
has been a policy in search of a justification ever since it began in
2010. Back then, policymakers decided it was time for policy to go back
to "normal" even though the economy hadn't, because deficits just
felt
too big. The only thing they needed was a theory telling them why what
they were doing made sense. Of course, this wasn't easy when
unemployment was still high, and interest rates couldn't go any lower.
Alberto Alesina and Silvia Ardagna
took the first stab at it, arguing that reducing deficits would
increase confidence and growth in the short-run. But this had the defect
of being demonstrably untrue (in addition to being based off a
naïve reading of the data).
Countries that tried to aggressively cut their deficits amidst their
slumps didn't recover; they fell into even deeper slumps.
Enter
Carmen Reinhart and Ken Rogoff.
They gave austerity a new raison d'être by shifting the debate from the
short-to-the-long-run. Reinhart and Rogoff acknowledged austerity would
hurt today, but said it would help tomorrow -- if it keeps governments
from racking up debt of 90 percent of GDP, at which point growth
supposedly slows dramatically. Now, this result was never more than just
a correlation -- slow growth more likely causes high debt than the
reverse -- but that didn't stop policymakers from imputing totemic
significance to it. That is, it became a "fact" that everybody who
mattered knew was true.
Except it wasn't.
Reinhart and Rogoff goofed. They accidentally excluded some data in one
case, and used some wrong data in another; the former because of an
Excel snafu. If you correct for these very basic errors, their
correlation gets even weaker, and the growth tipping point at 90 percent
of GDP disappears. In other words, there's no there there anymore.
Austerity is back to being a policy without a justification.
Not only that, but, as Paul Krugman
points out, Reinhart and Rogoff's spreadsheet misadventure has been a
kind of the-austerians-have-no-clothes moment. It's been enough that
even some rather unusual suspects have turned against cutting deficits
now. For one, Stanford professor
John Taylor claims
L'affaire Excel is why the G20, the
birthplace of the global austerity movement in 2010, was more muted on fiscal targets recently.
The
discovery of errors in the Reinhart-Rogoff paper on the growth-debt
nexus is already impacting policy. A participant in last Friday's G20
meetings told me that the error was a factor in the decision to omit specific deficit or debt-to-GDP targets in the G20 communique.
The UK and almost all of Europe have erred
in terms of believing that austerity, fiscal austerity in the short
term, is the way to produce real growth. It is not. You've got to spend
money. Bond investors want growth much like equity investors,
and to the extent that too much austerity leads to recession or
stagnation then credit spreads widen out -- even if a country can print
its own currency and write its own checks. In
the long term it is important to be fiscal and austere. It is important
to have a relatively average or low rate of debt to GDP. The question
in terms of the long term and the short term is how quickly to do it.
Growth
vigilantes are the new bond vigilantes. Gross thinks the boom, not the
slump, is the time for austerity -- which sounds an awful lot like
you-know-who.
The austerity fever has even broken in Europe. At least a bit. Now, eurocrats can't
say that austerity has been anything other than the best of all economic policies, but they
can
loosen the fiscal noose. And that's what they might be doing, by giving
countries more time and latitude to hit their deficit targets. Here's
how European Commission president
José Manuel Barroso framed the issue on Monday:
While [austerity] is fundamentally right, I think it has reached its limits in many aspects. A policy to be successful not only has to be properly designed. It has to have the minimum of political and social support.
That's not much, but it's still much better than the
growth-through-austerity plan Eurogroup president Jeroen Dijsselbloem was peddling on ... Saturday.
Now,
Reinhart and Rogoff's Excel imbroglio hasn't exactly set off a new
Keynesian moment. Governments aren't going to suddenly take advantage of
zero interest rates to start spending more to put people back to work.
Stimulus is still a four-letter word. Indeed, the euro zone, Britain,
and, to a lesser extent, the United States, are still focussed on
reducing deficits above all else. But there's a greater recognition that
trying to cut deficits isn't enough to cut debt burdens. You need
growth too. In other words, people are remembering that there's a
denominator in the debt-to-GDP ratio.
But
austerity doesn't just have a math problem. It has an image problem too.
Just a week ago, Reinhart and Rogoff's work was the one commandment of
austerity: Thou shall not run up debt in excess of 90 percent of GDP.
Wisdom didn't get more conventional. What did this matter? Well, as
Keynes famously observed,
it's better for reputation to fail conventionally than to succeed
unconventionally.
In other words, elites were happy to pursue obviously
failed policies as long as they were the right failed policies.
But
now austerity doesn't look so conventional. It looks like the punchline
of a bad joke about Excel destroying the global economy. Maybe, just
maybe, that will be enough to free us from some defunct economics.
fonte: http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/04/who-is-defending-austerity-now/275200/
Austerity loses an article of faith
di Martin Wolf
da Financial Times
In 1816, the
net public debt of the UK
reached 240 per cent of gross domestic product. This was the fiscal
legacy of 125 years of war against France. What economic disaster
followed this crushing burden of debt? The industrial revolution.
Yet Carmen Reinhart and Kenneth Rogoff of Harvard university argued, in a famous
paper,
that growth slows sharply when the ratio of public debt to GDP exceeds
90 per cent. The UK’s experience in the 19th century is such a powerful
exception, because it marked the beginning of the consistent rises in
living standards that characterises the world we live in. The growth of
that era is the parent of subsequent sustained growth everywhere.
As
Mark Blyth of Brown University notes in a splendid new book, great
economists of the 18th century, such as David Hume and Adam Smith warned
against excessive public debt. Embroiled in frequent wars, the British
state ignored them. Yet the warnings must have appeared all too
credible. Between 1815 and 1855, for example, debt interest accounted
for close to half of all UK public spending.
Nevertheless, the UK grew out of its debt. By the early 1860s, debt
had already fallen below 90 per cent of GDP. According to the late
Angus Maddison,
the economic historian, the compound growth rate of the economy from
1820 to the early 1860s was 2 per cent a year. The rise in GDP per head
was 1.2 per cent. By subsequent standards, this may not sound very much.
Yet this occurred despite the colossal debt burden in a country with a
very limited tax-raising capacity. Moreover, that debt was not
accumulated for productive purposes. It was used to fund the most
destructive of activities: war.
Quite simply, there is no iron law that
growth must collapse after debt exceeds 90 per cent of GDP.
The recent critique by
Thomas Herndon, Michael Ash and Robert Pollin
of the University of Massachusetts at Amherst makes three specific
charges against the conclusions of profs Reinhart and Rogoff: a simple
coding error; data omissions; and strange aggregation procedures. After
correction, they argue, average annual growth since 1945 in advanced
countries with debt above 90 per cent of GDP is 2.2 per cent. This
contrasts with 4.2 per cent when debt is below 30 per cent, 3.1 per cent
when debt stands between 30 per cent and 60 per cent, and 3.2 per cent
if debt is between 60 per cent and 90 per cent. In their
response,
profs Reinhart and Rogoff accept the coding errors, but reject the
critique of aggregation. I agree with the critics for reasons given by
Gavyn Davies. The argument that data covering a long period of high debt should count for more than data covering a short one is persuasive.
Nevertheless, their work and that of others supports the proposition
that slower growth is associated with higher debt. But an association is
definitely not a cause. Slow growth could cause high debt, a hypothesis
supported by
Arindrajit Dube,
also at Amherst. Consider Japan: is its high debt a cause of its slow
growth or a consequence? My answer would be: the latter. Again, did high
debt cause today’s low UK growth? No. Before the crisis, UK net public
debt was close to its lowest ratio to GDP in the past 300 years. The
UK’s rising debt is a result of slow growth or, more precisely, of the
cause of that low growth – a huge financial crisis.
Indeed, in their masterpiece,
This Time is Different, profs
Reinhart and Rogoff explained how soaring private debt can lead to
financial crises that generate deep recessions, weak recoveries and
rising public debt. This work is seminal. Its conclusion is clearly that
rising public debt is the consequence of the low growth, itself
explained by the crisis. This is not to rule out two-way causality. But
the impulse goes from private financial excesses to crisis, slow growth
and high public debt, not the other way round. Just ask the Irish or
Spanish about their experience.
It follows that, in assessing the consequences of debt for growth,
one must ask why the debt rose in the first place. Were wars being
financed? Was there fiscal profligacy in boom times, which is almost
certain to lower growth? Was the spending on high-quality public assets,
conducive to growth. Finally, did the rise in public debt follow a
private sector financial bust?
Different causes of high debt will have distinct results. Again, the
reasons why deficits are high and debt rising will affect the costs of
austerity. Usually, one can ignore the macroeconomic consequences of
fiscal austerity: either private spending will be robust or monetary
policy will be effective. But, after a financial crisis, a huge excess
of desired private savings is likely to emerge, even when interest rates
are very close to zero.
In that situation, immediate fiscal austerity will be
counterproductive. It will drive the economy into a deep recession,
while achieving only a limited reduction in deficits and debt. Moreover,
as the International Monetary Fund’s
Global Financial Stability Report
also notes, extreme monetary stimulus, in these circumstances, creates
substantial dangers of its own. Yet nobody who believes in maintaining
fiscal support for the economy in these specific (and rare)
circumstances thinks that “fiscal stimulus is always right”, as Anders
Aslund of the Peterson Institute for International Economics,
suggests. Far from it. Stimulus is merely not always wrong, as “austerians” seem to believe.
This is why I was – and remain – concerned about the intellectual
influence in favour of austerity exercised by profs Reinhart and Rogoff,
whom I greatly respect. The issue here is not even the direction of
causality, but rather the costs of trying to avoid high public debt in
the aftermath of a financial crisis. In its latest
World Economic Outlook,
the IMF notes that direct fiscal support for recovery has been
exceptionally weak. Not surprisingly, the recovery itself has also been
feeble. One of the reasons for this weak support for crisis-hit
economies has been concern about the high level of public debt. Profs
Reinhart and Rogoff’s paper justified that concern. True, countries in
the eurozone that cannot borrow must tighten. But their partners could
either support continued spending or offset their actions with their own
policies. Others with room for manoeuvre, such as the US and even the
UK, could – and should – have taken a different course. Because they did
not, recovery has been even weaker and so the long-run costs of the
recession far greater than was necessary. This was a huge blunder. It is
still not too late to reconsider.
fonte:http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/60b7a4ec-ab58-11e2-8c63-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2RJyTiwFK